Practical and Ethical Challenges of Large Language Models in Education: A Systematic Scoping Review

In plain words

Many researchers have built tools that use large language models to help with teaching: writing quiz questions, marking essays, giving feedback to students, and recommending courses. This paper collects 118 published studies from 2017 to 2022 that do this, sorts their tasks into nine groups, and checks how practical and how ethical those tools are.

The short answer is that most of these tools are still early-stage, most studies do not share enough for someone else to rebuild them, and none reached the level where educators and parents can understand how the tool works. Almost all studies used older models, not the newest ones. The authors end with three recommendations: update tools with newer models, publish the code and systems, and involve teachers and students throughout development.

TL;DR

A systematic scoping review of 118 studies from 2017 to 2022 on using language models to automate educational tasks §3.1 §4. It finds 53 use cases in nine categories §4.1 tab. 1. Most tools are at an early technology readiness level, most studies cannot be replicated from what they publish, and privacy and equality are rarely addressed §4.2 §4.3. All counts are the review's own tallies; nothing is re-run.

Problem

Educational technology teams want to automate time-consuming tasks such as question generation, feedback, essay scoring and short-answer grading §1. Earlier systematic reviews covered one application at a time (question generation, automated feedback, chatbots, essay scoring) §2.3. No review had covered practical and ethical challenges across educational tasks in general, especially for LLM-based systems, which the authors say emerged in the past five years §1 §2.1. The paper asks three research questions: the current state of research (RQ1), practical challenges (RQ2), and ethical challenges (RQ3) §2.3.

Practicality is judged through technology readiness, model performance and replicability §2.1 §3.2. Ethicality is judged through transparency, privacy, equality and beneficence §2.2 §3.2.

Method

The study is a systematic scoping review following the PRISMA protocol §3.1. Scoping reviews are used for emerging fields, so study quality was not assessed §3. There are no models, equations or algorithms to implement. The review pipeline below is a reconstruction of the procedure described in the text.

1. Search. Search title, abstract and keywords in Scopus, ACM Digital Library, IEEE Xplore and Web of Science. Add Google Scholar and ERIC for papers not yet indexed. Search terms combine three groups: names of large and pre-trained language models (GPT and BERT wording among them), education, and student or teacher wording, with wildcard suffixes §3.1. Publication window 2017-01-01 to 2022-12-31 §3.1.
2. Deduplicate. Two researchers ran the database search independently. 191 duplicates were removed from 854 hits, leaving 663 §3.1.
3. Title and abstract screening. Two researchers applied five criteria §3.1: include studies that use large or pre-trained language models, directly or built on them; include empirical studies with detailed methods; include full-length peer-reviewed papers only; include studies that automate an educational task; include English-language studies only. Screening left 197 papers (Cohen's kappa 0.75) §3.1.
4. Full-text review. 118 papers were kept for extraction (kappa 0.73) §3.1.

# Review pipeline, reconstructed from the text  [§3.1] [§3.2]
# Input:  search terms, databases, date window 2017-2022
# Output: 118 studies, each with 4 context items and 7 assessment items

def scoping_review(databases, terms, window):
    # Search title, abstract and keywords in four databases, plus
    # Google Scholar and ERIC  [§3.1]
    records = search_all(databases, terms, window)
    # Remove duplicate records (191 removed in the paper)  [§3.1]
    records = remove_duplicates(records)
    # Screen titles and abstracts against the five criteria  [§3.1]
    records = [r for r in records if passes_title_abstract(r)]
    # Full-text review: drop non-papers, short papers, non-English  [§3.1]
    records = [r for r in records if passes_full_text(r)]
    # Code each study on 4 context items and 7 assessment items  [§3.2]
    return [extract_items(r) for r in records]

Data extraction. Four context items describe each study: educational task, stakeholders, LLM used, and machine-learning task. Seven assessment items map to the definitions: technology readiness, performance and replicability (practicality, items 1-3), and transparency, privacy, equality and beneficence (ethicality, items 4-7) §3.2. Context items were coded with inductive thematic analysis §3.2. Technology readiness used the Australian Department of Defence TRL scale, and transparency used the three-tier index of Chaudhry et al. §3.2. Coders agreed on 20 random studies first. After kappa exceeded 0.80, the other 98 studies were split 49 and 49 §3.2.

Figure. The PRISMA flow diagram fig. 1 shows the screening counts. The image is not reproduced here.

Hyperparameters

The paper trains no models. The protocol parameters are:

Results

Author-reported. The setup is a systematic scoping review of 118 peer-reviewed studies, 2017-2022, with no experiments run by the authors §3.1 §4. "LLM" in this review includes BERT-era pre-trained language models, so most counts are for BERT-family models §4.1. The headline counts are below.

Privacy: none of the studies that fine-tuned on student text explained its consent strategy or data protection measures §4.3.2.

Paper vs code

No official code. The paper is a review with no implementation. Its LaTeX source contains no URL, and a GitHub repository search for the title and author names returned no results. The data extraction database is said to be in a supplementary document §3.2; it was not available for checking.

Pitfalls

• Exclusion counts do not add up. The text says 79 of 197 full-text papers were excluded §3.1. The listed reasons (41 + 17 + 12 + 3 + 2 + 2) total 77. Two exclusions are unexplained. The 118 included is consistent with 197 - 79.
• "LLM" is broad. The inclusion rule admits any pre-trained language model, including BERT and BERT variants, which are 109 of the 118 studies §3.1 §4.1. Do not read the counts as evidence about GPT-scale models. Only 3 studies used GPT-3 and 2 used Codex §4.1.
• Study quality was not assessed. The authors state that the performance numbers "may need further evaluation" §5.3. The scores use different metrics, datasets and tasks, so they must not be ranked against each other.
• Search window ends in 2022. The window is 2017-01-01 to 2022-12-31 §3.1. The abstract says "since 2017" but does not mention the end date. Models named in the results (GPT-3, Codex) are the 2022 state of the field.
• Coding is judgement-based. Categories come from inductive thematic analysis with two coders §3.2. The counts depend on how a task is assigned to a category (for example, code generation falls under content generation tab. 1). Other coders may get different totals.
• Recommended targets are not measured. The authors recommend Tier 3 transparency and TRL-7 readiness §5.2. No included study reached either level, and the paper does not show that reaching them improves outcomes.
• Transparency to students is not covered. The index used does not include students, which the authors flag as a limitation §5.3.
• Figure. The PRISMA diagram fig. 1 is described here in words only.

Lineage

• Builds on: the earlier systematic reviews the paper cites as related work (Kurdi et al., Cavalcanti et al., Wollny et al., Ramesh et al.) [§2 Related Work]. None has a card in this wiki, so none is linked.
• Compared against: the Australian Department of Defence TRL scale §3.2 and the Chaudhry et al. transparency index §3.2; neither has a card in this wiki.
• Superseded by: not known from content in this wiki.